Bison: mitochondrial genomics

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Introduction to bison conservation genomics

(to be continued)

Phylogeny: bison and yak are sister groups

(to be continued)

Interpreting bison CYTB variation

Bison mitochondrial genomes became well-represented at GenBank with the 1 Dec 10 release by the Derr group of 31 complete genomes from 6 herds including two woods bison (Bison bison athabascae) from the non-admixed Elk Island herd (along with various cow-bison hybrid and cow breed genomes). The cow-bison hybrids represent crossing of a bison male with a domestic cow (or rather a continuous line of female descent from such a cross) and so have strictly cow mitochondrial dna, not relevent to this section. The haplotype of all hybrids studied (from an unnamed private ranch in Montana, presumably Turner's Flying D) cluster with cow haplotype cHap32.

Bison accession numbers:
GU946976 GU946977 GU946978 GU946979 GU946980 GU946981 GU946982 GU946983 GU946984 GU946985 GU946986
GU946987 GU946988 GU946989 GU946990 GU946991 GU946992 GU946993 GU946994 GU946995 GU946996 GU946997
GU946998 GU946999 GU947000 GU947001 GU947002 GU947003 GU947004 GU947005 GU947006
BisonHaploDerr.jpg

The CYTB sequences retrieved from these genomic entries (they are not yet in the database used by blastp) show haplotype notation. The 15 previously existing bison sequences at GenBank (some just fragments are also provided. Older fragmentary sequences are demonstrably error-prone and will be used here only as support -- never as sole source -- of a polymorphism. Redundancy introduced via non-standard SwissProt (UniProt) entries also has to be manually removed -- the Swiss did no sequencing on their own, simply deriving protein sequences from existing GenBank entries. This leaves 5 older complete sequences for Bison bison and 4 fragments, 2 attributed to Bison bonasus and 1 fossil dna sequence from Bos primigenius to serve as outgroup (rather than an inbred domestic cow).

Here it is necessary to pick a terminology. This must accommodate NCBI taxonomy -- regardless of its correctness -- because otherwise blastp searches cannot be restricted by taxon. Note although bison are definitely sistered with yak to the exclusion of all other extant species, that creates problems because yak has been put in the genus Bos. Many relic wild cattle have no english language common name but rather that of a local language. Terminology table must show synonyms to allow PubMed and google searches -- especially important in a fast-moving field to locate preprints and conference proceedings. The table below does not attempt to implicitly resolve any scientific issue; it simply states preferred terminology at this site along with synonyms in common use.

(editing to be continued)
Bison bison      plains bison
Bison athabascae woods bison
Bison bonasus    euro bison
Bison priscus    steppe bison
Bos primigenius  auroch (extinct except for Korean and Italian cattle with auroch mitochondrial genomes)
Bos grunniens    yak
Bos indicus 
zebu
kourey
Bos taurus common cow
gaur
wisent
Leptobos last common ancestor to cows and bison

Sequences are color clustered according to the phylogenetic tree above. bHap1 is not shown. Note the woods bison cannot be resolved from the plains bison even though the Elk Island woods bison are a relic herd that did not mix with 7,000 plains bison imported from the Flathead Reservation in Montana up to Canada's Wood Buffalo National Park in the 1920's.


>CYTB_bisBis.GU946988 bHap8 plains bison b973 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946994 bHap11 plains bison b1031 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946990 bHap10 plains bison b985 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU947000 bHap10 plains bison bFN5 Niobrara
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946991 bHap10 plains bison b1005 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU947004 bHap17 plains bison bYNP1586 Yellowstone NP
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946976 bHap2 plains bison b790 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946977 bHap2 plains bison b853 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946978 bHap2 plains bison b854 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946981 bHap2 plains bison b880 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946983 bHap2 plains bison b925 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946984 bHap2 plains bison b929 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946993 bHap2 plains bison b1029 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946995 bHap2 plains bison b1050 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946996 bHap2 plains bison b1051 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU947001 bHap2 plains bison bNBR1 National Bison Range
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946986 bHap2 plains bison b959 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHAGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW
 
>CYTB_bisBis.GU946989 bHap9 plains bison b979 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946997 bHap9 plains bison b1091 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946982 bHap5 plains bison b897 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW
 
>CYTB_bisBis.GU946982 bHap5 plains bison b897 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946987 bHap7 plains bison b961 Montana
MTSLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946979 bHap3 plains bison b855 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946992 bHap3 plains bison b1018 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946992 bHap3 plains bison b1018 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946998 bHap12 plains bison b1191 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU947003 bHap16 plains bison bTSBH1005 Texas State Bison Herd
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946999 bHap13 plains bison b1428 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU947002 bHap13 plains bison bTSBH1001 Texas State Bison Herd
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisAth.GU947005 wHap15 woods bison wEI1 Elk Island
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946980 bHap4 plains bison b877 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisBis.GU946985 bHap6 plains bison b935 Montana
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bisAth.GU947006 wHap14 woods bison wEI14 Elk Island
MTNLRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGMCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTMMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIIMAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDMDKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQMASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKWDEFINITION
(editing to be continued)
YP_002791041  Bison bison
Q9T9C1        Bison bison
YP_003587278  Bison bonasus
ACE76876      Bos primigenius
YP_003541096  Bos primigenius
O20998        Bison bonasus
ADQ12704      Bison bonasus 61 ......T.....ETTAEF...................V......................  120
AAL85955      Bison bison
AAL85956      Bison bonasus
ADM87433      Bison bison 
AAW28803      Bison bison
AAW28804      Bison bison
AAW28802      Bison bonasus
AAN28295      Bison bison
CAA76013      Bison bonasus

Interpreting CYTB variation in yak

CytoYak.jpg

Yaks are the closest living sister species to bison. Although 15,000 wild yaks still persist, they have been subject to very similar pressures to those experienced by bison: bottlenecks, population fragmentation, introgression from long domesticated yaks and hybridization with cattle. Adaptations specific to mitochondria may exist as yak live at altitudes exceeding 4000 meters with average annual temperatures in rearing areas –8°C, with animals surviving winter temperatures of –40°C.

Because yaks provide the immediate outgroup for bison genetics (and vice versa), their parallel mitochondrial proteomics are investigated in depth here. This further enables reconstruction of mitochondrial proteins of their last common ancestor (after consideration of lineage sorting) and correct placement of Pleistocene genomic sequences.

Data availability for yaks was greatly improved by a Dec 2010 paper by Zhaofeng Wang et al. that investigated yak phylogeographical structure and demographic history on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Complete mitochondrial genomes were determined for 48 domesticated and 21 wild yaks. The three lineages shown in article supplemental established diverged at 420 kyr and 580 kyr in accordance with extended but temporary allopatric migration barriers created by two large plateau glaciations.

The wild yaks are found in all three branches of the tree (solid circles in figure). Their entries at GenBank are distinguished by a W (for wild) prefix, eg isolate W77 GQ464266. There is potential for confusion here because NCBI taxonomy uses Bos grunniens mutus for wild yak, yet the subspecies concept is contradicted by the mixed distribution of wild and domestic yaks in the mitochondrial tree. Related taxa such as Bos mutus (Przewalski, 1883), Bos mutus grunniens, and Poephagus mutus also conflict with the facts. Yak and bison -- diverging at 2.5 million years -- need to reside in the same genus.

YakPhylo.jpg

The primary focus here are protein polymorphisms in wild yak because domesticated animals may exhibit inbreeding issues and other evolutionary artifacts due to their estrangement from darwinian selection. Consequently it is important to track which GenBank entries reference wild yaks.

Bos grunniens mutus has three GenBank entries relevant to cytochrome b: proteins AAX53006 and AY955226 both containing unique V195A, I348F mutations in an otherwise wildtype background and CAA76015, an older fragmentary wildtype sequence not considered further here. The first two animals add samples to the large, remote Xinjiang province but remain unpublished (Liu,Q Wu,M Li,Y) despite the 27 Mar 2005 submission date at GenBank. (A number of D-loop sequences submitted for this taxon on 19 Jan 2009 by 27-MAR-2005 by Ma,ZJ also remain unpublished.)

The Myanmar/Bhutan mithun sequence BAJ05329 attributed to Bos grunniens at GenBank has 12 differences to wild yak but is 100% identical to 94 Bos indicus entries, ie it is a hybrid and its mitochondrial genome is irrelevant here. Such GenBank errors are all but impossible to correct.

The 21 new genome accessions of wild yak are GQ464266, GQ464265, GQ464264, GQ464263, GQ464262, GQ464261, GQ464260, GQ464259, GQ464258, GQ464257, GQ464256, GQ464255, GQ464254, GQ464253, GQ464252, GQ464251, GQ464250, GQ464249, GQ464248, GQ464247, GQ464246. These were not mapped to the published tree.

In terms of protein accessions (which will be shown at NCBI blastp output), these are ACU81659, ACU81646, ACU81633, ACU81620, ACU81607, ACU81594, ACU81581, ACU81568, ACU81555, ACU81542, ACU81529, ACU81516, ACU81503, ACU81490, ACU81477, ACU81464, ACU81451, ACU81438, ACU81425, ACU81412, ACU81399 to which AAX53006 and AY955226 can be added.

Of these, 16 fall in the main reference sequence group (wildtype) but 5 wild plateau yaks exhibit polymorphisms that cannot be attributed to domestication. As noted, two additional wild yaks from extreme NW China have additional double mutations but no associated PubMed publication nor tissue source indicated. As either change alone would inactivate an essential enzyme, these represent either heteroplasmic oddities or sequence error (to be pursued as other proteins are considered). The remaining sequences were derived from muscle and skin dna.

There is no overlap between wild yak polymorphism sites and the five of domestic yak. Alleles occurring in full length sequences are analyzed further below.

The summary table of yak CYTB amino acid polymorphisms below arises from alignment of 5000 full-length mammalian cytochrome b orthologs. Magenta indicates a deleterious change at an invariant position,red a deleterious mutation at a naturally polymorphic site, green a possibly acceptable change but of restricted distribution and fitness, and blue a near-neutral substitution. Gray is reserved for probable sequencing error. It can be seen that the smallish yak population sampled (72 animals) already contains 5 deleterious alleles in CYTB which represents only 10% of the amino acids of the mitochondrial proteome.

In summary, out of 70 individual yaks, 10 are carrying deleterious mutations at five sites. That seems like an extraordinary number for a central enzyme in energy metabolism for which it is difficult to envision compensation by another gene. Restricting to the 21 wild yaks, 3 have deleterious polymorphism and 1 has a marginal change. Overall 1 in 7 animals is affected just in this one gene. However CYTB is but one of 13 encoded by the mitochondrial genome -- what sort of genetic burden are yaks carrying overall?

1 ACU81568 A017T       wild yak   isolate W50   GQ464259
2 ACU81399 I192T       wild yak   isolate W02   GQ464246
  ACU81633 I192T       wild yak   isolate W75   GQ464264
3 ACU81555 D214N       wild yak   isolate W40   GQ464258
4 AAX53006 V195A I348F mutus      isolate Xinjiang01 unpublished Liu,Q Wu,M Li,Y 
  AAX53007 V195A I348F mutus      isolate Xinjiang02 unpublished Liu,Q Wu,M Li,Y
5 ACU81529 V329M       wild yak   isolate W1313 GQ464256

6 ABI15999 V039I A067T domestic yak              fragment   PUBMED:17257194 Poephagus
7 ABI16000 V039I A067T domestic yak              fragment   PUBMED:17257194 Poephagus
  ACU82153 A084T       domestic yak isolate HY5
8 ACU82101 V098L       domestic yak isolate HY1
9 AAU89116 I118T       domestic yak             =SP:Q5Y4Q0  PUBMED:16942892
  ACU81711 I118T       domestic yak isolate HZ3 
  ACU81737 I118T       domestic yak isolate MQ1
  AAS93096 I118T       domestic yak              fragment   PUBMED:17257194
  AAS93099 I118T       domestic yak              fragment   PUBMED:17257194

Although the mitochondria encodes the usual 20 amino acids, only a subset of chemically similar residues ever appear at a given position in a given protein -- its reduced alphabet. This subset describes the evolutionarily acceptable substitutions that do not significantly disrupt protein functionality. Discovery of this reduced alphabet can be achieved with greater precision the higher the number of available species and individual sequences multiplicities. For mitochondrial proteins, that sensitivity is 1 in 10,000 (0.01% occurrence frequency) for a given amino acid, much better than even the much-studied human nuclear genome.

Interpretive certainty is never attained without experimentation (yeast is a surprisingly informative model system) but improves up to a point with more sequence data. Here it is important to check whether less common substitutions have persisted over evolutionary time in a phylogenetically coherent manner (ie a sub-clade) or are novel adaptations perhaps in conjunction with a co-evolving residue at another site (or another protein, perhaps nuclear-encoded). After these considerations, the remaining rare changes are mostly deleterious (or sequencing error) but rarely adaptive. Polymorphism significance can be pursued at the xray structural level for only 3 of the 13 mitochondrial proteins (CYTB, COX2, COX1) and even this is complicated in the case of CYTB by its oligomeric association with 3 nuclear encoded proteins.

Aligning CTYB from the 72 complete yak mitochondrial genomes available on 1 Dec 10 shows variation at just 9 sites along the protein (ie 9 nsSNPs). These are quickly found when the web alignment tool retains input sequence order, displays residues identical to the top sequence as dots, gaps fragmentary data correctly, and allows a wide display permitting effective cross-species comparisons.

Yak and bison -- despite being sister species -- share variation only at one site, position 98. Here yak is exclusively valine with the exception of a single deleterious occurrence (see below) of leucine, whereas bison have a mix of valine and alanine (which otherwise is very rare at this position in mammals), ie the ancestral residue was valine. Thus no lineage sorting occurred at any amino acid position in CYTB at the time these two species diverged at 2.5 myr. Lineage sorting however may be important in the overall evolution of the Bovini: 53 ancient polymorphisms (at the dna level) are said to have persisted since Bos and Bison diverged from Bubalus 5–8 million years ago.

The changes can also be displayed in context by coloring the appropriate residues in a reference sequence relative to a composite sequence consolidating all the polymorphisms from distinct animals (no one animal has more than two of the 9; V195A + I348F occurs in two animals). The composite sequence is quite useful in comparing polymorphism sites across species as explained in the annotation tricks section.

>CYTB_bosGruR Bos grunniens cytochrome b ref seq taken as gi|147744503 
MTNIRKSHPLMKIVNNAFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGVCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHANGASMFFICLYMHVGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVILLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIITAIAMVHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSDADKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLVADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYIIIGQLASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

>CYTB_bosGruP Bos grunniens composite polymorphisms: A017T A084T V098L I188T I192T V195A D214N V329M I348F
MTNIRKSHPLMKIVNNTFIDLPAPSNISSWWNFGSLLGVCLILQILTGLFLAMHYTSDTTTAFSSVAHICRDVNYGWIIRYMHTNGASMFFICLYMHLGRGLYYGSYTFLETWNIGVTLLLTVMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSF
WGATVITNLLSAIPYIGTNLVEWIWGGFSVDKATLTRFFAFHFILPFIITATAMAHLLFLHETGSNNPTGISSNADKIPFHPYYTIKDILGALLLILALMLLVLFTPDLLGDPDNYTPANPLNTPPHIKPEWYFLFAYAI
LRSIPNKLGGVLALAFSILILALIPLLHTSKQRSMIFRPLSQCLFWTLMADLLTLTWIGGQPVEHPYFIIGQLASIMYFLLILVLMPTAGTIENKLLKW

   wild        dom       dom       dom      wild       dom      wild      wild       dom       
  A017T      A084T     V098L     I118T     I192T     V195A     D214N     V329M     I348F  
  4018S      4994A     4522V     4309I     4353L     4528V     4429D     4610V     4232I
   927A*        3T      430I      667S      505M      427I      512N      188T      651V
    46T         1P       34M       14I       94I*      25T       43E      133A       63T
     3L         1V       11A       1T        31T        4G        8S       44I       45M
     3M                   1L                  3F        4M        2Y       22M        4N
     1F                   1N                  2V        1A        1H        2G        2F
     1P                                       1A                            1E        1A                       
                                              1S        
A017Tphylo.jpg

A017T: At position 98, the mammalian reduced alphabet consists primarily of serine but with yak alanine also well represented at 18%. Threonine occurs in 46 sequences so cannot be sequence error or serious mutation. Bulk seems to be the main criterion at this site rather than polarity -- threonine though polar is bulkier residue than serine or alanine. To determine whether it has arisen multiple times or just in one clade, the phylogenetic distribution of the 46 occurrences needs consideration.

It can be seen from the graphic at left that A017T has arisen multiple times with no common denominator (such as high elevation lifestyle) but -- with the exception of monotremes -- never in a deep stem ancestor. That is, A017T occurs here and there but only in recently speciated clades. This suggests that while not lethal, over time it gets replaced by more adaptive serine or alanine.

A017T
 4018  S
  927  A yak do not have the most common amino acid at position 17
   46  T
    3  L
    3  M
    1  F
    1  P


A084T: At position 84, alanine is strictly invariant. Thus threonine is an unmistakable deleterious mutation in domestic yak.

A084T  
 4994  A
    3  T
    1  P
    1  V

V098L: At position 98, the reduced alphabet consists of valine 90% of the time regardless of mammalian clade with the similar (branched chain aliphatic) isoleucine having substantial dispersed representation at nearly 9%. The 430 species in which it occurs are scattered incoherently within mammal clades, meaning that it has arisen independently many times. V098I may be slightly suboptimal as there is an evident bias (at some level) against equal occurrence. It likely co-exists with valine in most non-bottlenecked populations of mammals, observed if enough individuals of a given species are sequenced.

However leucine, the seemingly similar third aliphatic residue, occurs one once despite being but a single base change transition away from the dominant residue. Were leucine a near-neutral substitution, its incidence would be vastly higher. Thus the change V098L reported for yak represents either a deleterious mutation or an unprecedented adaptation (eg to high altitude) or sequencing error in GenBank entry ACU82101. The same can be said for the more overtly radical change V098N in lemur AAS00156. The 34 methionines occur sporadically in the phylogenetic tree suggesting they are sub-adaptive and blink out over time. Indeed, canine spongiform leukoencephalomyelopathy is attributed to V98M. Dog CYTB is 89% identical to that of yak and numbering corresponds.

V098L
4522	V 
 430	I
  34	M
  11	A bison
   1	L yak
   1	N lemur

I118T: At position 118, the reduced alphabet consists predominantly of ILV with some A and M, a very common occurrence proteomewide. TSF are all deleterious mutations in domestic yak.

I118T
 2597  I 
 1843  L
  404  V
   87  A
   61  M
    6  T (all yak)
    1  S
    1  F

I192T: At position 192 of wild yak, the dominant residue is leucine instead of the yak ancestral value isoleucine, which is disfavored relative to methionine, ie isoleucine is a mild polymorphism in its own right but the associated taxonomy shows it narrowly restricted to 83 sequences in Bos, Bison, and separately in 5 Kobus (waterbucks), too persistent to be dysfunctional and indeed a candidate for adaptive. However change to polar threonine is seen in 31 nominal species but after removal of redundancy, only in two species of pocket mice. Thus the yak change is deleterious.

I192T  
 4353  L
  505  M
   94  I
   31  T
    3  F
    2  V
    1  A
    1  S

V195A: This allele occurs together with I348F in two wild yaks from a remote region in NW China. Despite sequence submission, no article has appeared in the three subsequent years. It can be seen from the reduced alphabet frequencies that this is a severe mutation (as is I348F) so taken together likely sequence just error. No further analysis will be done here until such time as the polymorphisms are confirmed.

V195A  
 4528  V
  427  I
   25  T
    4  G
    4  M
    1  A

D214N: This polymorphism of wild yak is seen quite widely, in some 10% of mammals. The 223 taxa with D214N are mostly confined to laurasiatheres and glires but are not a hallmark of these clades. Nor do the species with asparagine have any common lifestyle denominator. Asparagine is an acceptable variation for aspartate at this site if perhaps not optimal.

D214N  
 4429  D
  512  N
   43  E
    8  S
    4  X
    2  Y
    1  H

V329M: This allele occurs in wild yak. Methionine is not a radical substitution in terms of physical/chemical properties and similar additional amino acids appear at low levels, even though valine occurs in a huge majority of species. Methionine occurs in 17 other species phylogenetically scattered species include Bos javanicus, Ovis, Budorcas, Naemorhedus, Mus, Rattus, bats and sloth. Thus it is likely suboptimal but not significantly deleterious.

V329M  
 4610  V
  188  T
  133  A
   44  I
   22  M
    2  G
    1  E

I348F: This allele occurs together with V195A in two wild yaks from a remote region in NW China. Despite sequence submission, no article has appeared in the three subsequent years. In can be seen from the reduced alphabet frequencies that this is a severe mutation but more likely sequence error, as is V195A.

I348F  
 4232  I348F
  651  V
   63  T
   45  M
    4  N
    2  I348F
    1  A

Human CYTB polymorphism and disease

Polymorphisms and pathogenic mutations disease for human CYTB have been very helpfully compiled by mtDB and MitoMap, with other mammals at OMIA. Fortunately, numbering systems carry over without change to bison and yak since no indels occur in this gene within mammals.

A poor practice at many journals allows amino acid changes to be described just by a single nucleotide coordinate relative to the Cambridge Reference Sequence, NC_012920. That requires the user to have a numbered translation via the mitochondrial genetic code showing in-frame amino acids; however the change from the protein perspective (eg V98T) is often conveniently displayed at Uniprot. Coordinates for all mitochondrial features are tabulated here; CYTB extends from position 14747-15887.

Given over 7000 complete human mitochondrial genomes and a high mutation rate, some human polymorphic sites will inevitably overlap with yak and bison alleles. Thus any information about associated human disease at the 16 known disease sites might be transferable. However many rare and obviously dysfunctional alleles were collected for population haplotype mapping and no disease information was collected.

Annotation transfer is vastly complicated by heteroplasmy, experimentalist inability to establish the heritability of the allele and differances in tissues used to obtain dna for sequencing and so neglects the possibly compensatory effect of changes elsewhere in this gene (or nuclear genes that interact with it), a substantial issue in a protein like cytochrome b where 10% of the residues between bovids and human are non-identical. At such sites (eg H214Y human, D214N yak, transfer of phenotypic information is dubious.

brown in the human allele table below indicates human polymorphisms corresponding to an allele of concern in yak or bison. In two significant cases -- both in domestic yak -- the initial and final residue of human are identical to that of yak, namely A084T* and I118T*. Both are predicted to be deleterious in both human and yak. Unfortunately no clinical information was collected on the human side.

However even A084T (a strongly invariant site in all mammals) was evidently not early-lethal for its adult human carrier (dna samples are collected from adult volunteers whose health status is not recorded). Here the vast and still unsettled complexities of mitochondrial genomics may come into play:

  • a single mitochondrion may up to 10 replicated copies of its genome which need not be identical
  • cells can carry thousands of mitochondria inherited erratically during embryogenesis and later stem cells
  • dna samples, not being collected from germline cells, may represent non-heritable somatic mutations in restricted descendent cells of the tissue sampled
  • disease onset is often in late adulthood due to the nature of mitochondrial replication and dispersal to daughter cells and so may not be applicable to shorter-lived species

Thus mitochondrial disease in yak will not be so straightforward:

"Heteroplasmy is the presence of a mixture of more than one type of an organellar genome within a cell or individual. It is a factor for the severity of mitochondrial diseases, since every eukaryotic cell contains many hundreds of mitochondria with hundreds of copies of mtDNA, it is possible and indeed very frequent for mutations to affect only some of the copies, while the remaining ones are unaffected.

Symptoms of severe heteroplasmic mitochondrial disorders frequently do not appear until adulthood because many cell divisions and much time is required for a cell to receive enough mitochondria containing the mutant alleles to cause symptoms. An example of this phenomenon is Leber optic atrophy (LHON). Affected individuals may not experience vision difficulties until they have reached adulthood. Another example is MERRF syndrome (Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers). Heteroplasmy here explains the variation in severity of the disease among siblings. The incidence of heteroplasmy in human mtDNA is unknown, as the number of individuals who have been subjected to mtDNA testing for reasons other than the diagnosis of mitochondrial disorders is small."

The oft-observed disease Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON) is genetically heterogeneous, arising from mutations in other mitochondrial genes (R340H in ND4, A52T in ND1 and M64V in ND6, subunits of complex I of the oxidative phosphorylation chain in mitochondria) as well as from CYTB variants A29T and secondarily D171N and V356M.

tRNA disruptions in bison were analyzed by Douglas et al. Here it is known the human disease MERRF disrupts mitochondrial tRNA-Lys in 80% of cases and so biosynthesis of mitochondrial proteins essential for oxidative phosphorylation. It too is genetically heterogeneous as tRNAs for leucine, histidine, serine and phenylalanine can be affected in other individuals.

Mitochondrial diseases arise frequently: 1 in 4000 individuals is at risk of developing a mitochondrial disease sometime in their lifetime. Half of those affected are children who show symptoms before age five, and approximately 80% of them will die before age 20. The mortality rate is roughly that of cancer... The mutation rate of the mitochondrial genome is 10–20 times greater than of nuclear DNA, and mtDNA is more prone to oxidative damage than is nuclear DNA. Mutations in human mtDNA cause premature aging, severe neuromuscular pathologies and maternally inherited metabolic diseases, and influence apoptosis.

When yak and bison mitochondrial genomes are sequenced and a polymorphism reported, what exactly does that mean? Presumably it reflects an overwhelmingly dominant value of whatever heteroplasmy existed in the tissue sample used to sequence the dna.

The key bison study used white blood cells as dna source. One might imagine this fraction of whole blood is quite heterogeneous in terms of stem cell origin -- five different, diverse leukocyte types exist -- but these all derive from a single hematopoietic stem cell type in bone marrow. Consequently, no other part of these bison was sampled. Thus we do not know whether the observed polymorphisms are heritable (apart from those observed in multiple animals).

For yak, the tissue source is not recorded in the GenBank entry. Since germline tissue was not used, the observed polymorphisms are not necessarily heritable even for female individuals (male mitochondria are not passed on). However in the case of yak polymorphisms I118T (domestic) and I192T (wild), multiple individuals (5, 2 respectively) sampled carried the same rare change, strongly implying these are entrenched in the germline and so inherited (oocytes provide relatively few mitochondria to the zygote). Oocyte heteroplasmy however is also heritable. The other polymorphisms might be mere somatic mutations that attained abundance in the sampled tissue. This would have to be pursued in additional tissues or more definitively by sequencing offspring, perhaps not feasible in wild yak.

In summary, even deleterious polymorphisms may have limited effects, depending on stem cell origin and compensation by the wildtype component of heteroplasmy. On the other hand, should a bad alleles exert a negative dominant effect even as the minority in the mitochondrion in which it resides (eg tainting oligomeric proteins), it could still have deleterious outcomes even though it never comes to 100% frequency in any particular mitochondrion. Somatic mutations in bison and yak may have limited impacts if onset of disease is delayed to late adulthood as in human. For conservation genomics, we are primarily concerned with heritable germline mitochondrial mutations, though enhanced levels of somatic mutations (due say to a faulty nuclear genome encoded dna repair gene) are also a concern.

In domestic yak, animals bearing I118T should not be encouraged to reproduce. To be on the safe side, higher frequencies of the other deleterious alleles are also undesirable, even though not quite proven to be heritable.

In wild yak, I192T is the primary cause of concern. It should be avoided if captive breeding comes into play. A017T, D214N, and V329M are not deleterious mutations but rather natural and possibly adaptive parts of yak diversity whose continuation should be encouraged. These consideration are based solely on CYTB. Since no recombination occurs in mitochondria (to bring good alleles on different genes together) nor paternal contribution to dilute out undesirable heteroplasmy, it is unclear how these recommendations can be reconciled from those emerging from independent considerations of the other 12 mitochondrial genes.

Bovine oocyte mitochondrial issues have been studied for decades, with novel explanations how germline mutations might propagate:

GS Michaels 1982: Restriction endonuclease analysis and direct nucleotide sequencing of bovine mitochondrial DNA have revealed a high apparent rate of sequence divergence between maternally related individuals. Oocytes had 260,000 dna genomic copies per cell, whereas primary bovine tissue culture cells contained only 2,600 copies. These experiments demonstrate directly the amplification of mitochondrial DNA in mammalian oocytes and are consistent with models which could generate mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms by unequal amplification of mitochondrial genomes within an animal.

human yak

A084T A084T* seen twice in Japanese population
I098V V098L
I118V I118T
I118T I118T* seen once in Japan and once in India
H214Y D214N
A329T V329M

T2A	S56A	I117V	D171N	I211T	G251S	M316T	A354T
T2I	S56L	I118V	D171G	T212A	E251D	Y325H	V356M
M4V	T61A	I118T	S172N	T212I	Y256H	A329T	V356A
M4T	T70A	L121F	P173S	H214Y	T257I	A330T	T360A
R5G	Y75C	A122T	T174A	T219A	L258P	A330V	T360M
I7T	I78V	T123A	F181L	T219I	A259T	I334V	T368A
N8S	I78T	A125T	I184V	I226V	N260D	T336A	T368I
N15S	L82F	E136D	L185S	A229T	V284I	I338V	I369V
H16R	A84T	F140L	I189V	L230F	V291A	P342S	I369T
F18L	G86S	L149M	A190T	L233V	S297P	V343M	I372V
I19M	C93Y	I153T	A190V	F235L	I300T	V343A	M376V
A29T	I98V	Y155H	A191T	L236I	I304T	S344G	A380T
A39T	G101S	I156V	A191D	S238P	I306V	S344N	A380V
A39V	Y109H	I156T	A193T	S238F	I306T	Y345F	----
I42V	E111K	T158A	T194A	T241A	M309V	T348I	----
I42T	T112A	D159N	T194V	T241M	M309T	I349V	----
F50L	W113R	I164V	F199L	T243A	S310P	I349T	----
F50L	I115T	G167S	I211V	F245L	M316V	V353M	----

Of known disease mutations, only V98M corresponds to a bison allele:
A29T  LHON Leber hereditary optic neuropathy
G34S  mitochondrial myopathy; sporadic	
S35P  exercice intolerance
V98M* dog leukoencephalomyelopathy	
S151P exercise intolerance	
G166E hyperthrophic cardiomyopathy
D171N secondary LHON
G231D 16026996 mouse	
G251D CMIH
G251S obesity
N255H cardiomyopathy
Y278C multisystem disorder
G290D exercise intolerance
S297P neonatal polyvisceral failure 
G339E mitochondrial myopathy	
V356M secondary LHON
  • Adaptive rates of evolution in all 13 genes from an alignment of 214 mammalian mitochondrial genomes

Cytochrome b mutations in Leber hereditary optic neuropathy CYTB:D171N CYTB:V356M ND5:A458T New mutations were discovered in the apocytochrome b gene in Leber hereditary optic neuropathy probands who did not harbor either of the two known Complex I mutations (positions 3,460 and 11,778). A mutation at position 15,257 was found in eight independent probands which changed a highly conserved D to N, was not found in controls, and appears to be pathogenetically significant. The 15,257 mutation occurred in association with a known synergistic mutation at position 13,708 in 7/8 probands (ie ND5 A458T) and in association with a new apocytochrome b mutation at position 15,812 (ie V356M) in 4/8 probands. Mutations in Complex III genes may be involved in Leber hereditary optic neuropathy and multiple, simultaneous mutations occur frequently.

Mazunin IO (2010) Mitochondrial genome and human mitochondrial diseases. Molecular Biology 44(5) Today there are described more than 400 point mutations and more than hundred of structural rearrangements of mitochondrial DNA associated with characteristic neuromuscular and other mitochondrial syndromes, from lethal in the neonatal period of life to the disease with late onset. The defects of oxidative phosphorylation are the main reasons of mitochondrial disease development. Phenotypic diversity and phenomenon of heteroplasmy are the hallmark of mitochondrial human diseases. It is necessary to assess the amount of mutant mtDNA accurately, since the level of heteroplasmy largely determines the phenotypic manifestation. In spite of tremendous progress in mitochondrial biology since the cause-and-effect relations between mtDNA mutation and the human diseases was established over 20 years ago, there is still no cure for mitochondrial diseases.

Pathogenic mitochondrial DNA mutations in protein-coding genes

Lee-Jun C. Wong PhD Muscle Nerve, 2007

More than 200 disease-related mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) point mutations have been reported in the Mitomap (http://www.mitomap.org) database. These mutations can be divided into two groups: mutations affecting mitochondrial protein synthesis, including mutations in tRNA and rRNA genes; and mutations in protein-encoding genes (mRNAs). This review focuses on mutations in mitochondrial genes that encode proteins. These mutations are involved in a broad spectrum of human diseases, including a variety of multisystem disorders as well as more tissue-specific diseases such as isolated myopathy and Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). Because the mitochondrial genome contains a large number of apparently neutral polymorphisms that have little pathogenic significance, along with secondary homoplasmic mutations that do not have primary disease-causing effect, the pathogenic role of all newly discovered mutations must be rigorously established. A scoring system has been applied to evaluate the pathogenicity of the mutations in mtDNA protein-encoding genes and to review the predominant clinical features and the molecular characteristics of mutations in each mtDNA-encoded respiratory chain complex.

S297P homoplasmic in all tissues tested, undetectable in mother PMID: 19563916

Eur J Hum Genet. 2004 Mar;12(3):220-4.

The deleterious G15498A mutation in mitochondrial DNA-encoded cytochrome b may remain clinically silent in homoplasmic carriers.

We report on a patient with severe growth retardation and IgF1 deficiency, in which a mitochondrial abnormality was suspected. An isolated mitochondrial respiratory chain complex III deficiency was found in blood lymphocytes and skin fibroblasts. Sequence analysis of the cytochrome b, which is the only mitochondrial DNA-encoded subunit of complex III, revealed a homoplasmic G15498A mutation, resulting in the substitution of a highly conserved amino acid (glycine 251 into an aspartic acid). The mutation was found to be homoplasmic in all tissues examined from the mother and her brother (lymphocytes, fibroblasts, hair roots and buccal cells). Complex III deficiency was also demonstrated in these cells. Nevertheless, the mother and the brother were asymptomatic. This mutation had been considered as a cardiomyopathy-generating mutation in a previously reported case, and its pathogenicity has been demonstrated recently in yeast. However, it seems not to fulfil the classical criteria for pathogenicity of a mitochondrial DNA mutation, especially the heteroplasmic status, and to be clinically silent, albeit present, in nonaffected relatives. We suggest that other factors are contributing to the clinical variability expression of the G15498A mtDNA mutation.

Mitochondrial DNA mutations cause disease in >1 in 5000 of the population and approximately 1 in 200 of the population are asymptomatic carriers of a pathogenic mtDNA mutation. Many patients with these pathogenic mtDNA mutations present with a progressive, disabling neurological syndrome that leads to major disability and premature death. There is currently no effective treatment for mitochondrial disorders, placing great emphasis on preventing the transmission of these diseases. An empiric approach can be used to guide genetic counseling for common mtDNA mutations, but many families transmit rare or unique molecular defects. There is therefore a pressing need to develop techniques to prevent transmission based on a solid understanding of the biological mechanisms. Several recent studies have cast new light on the genetics and cell biology of mtDNA inheritance, but these studies have also raised new controversies.

Nuclear proteins that raise mitochondrial mutation rates

The genetic stability of mtDNA in every mammal (indeed every eukaryote) depends critically on the accuracy of dna replication. The consequences of any mutation in this machinery would be greatly amplified (like the broomsticks in the Sorcerer's Apprentice) by subsequent somatic errors created in replicating mitochondrial genomes. It is essential to consider these genes given the apparent elevated rate of mitochondrial polymorphism reported for bison and yak.

The nuclear encoded, mitochondrially functioning dna polymerase POLG on chr 15, the catalytic subunit The catalytic subunit (dna polymerase itself, 3’-5’ exonuclease for proofreading, 5’deoxyribosephosphate lyase for base excision repair), deserves special mention in regards to the extraordinary observed rates of yak and bison coding polymorphisms. Some 90 distinct [human disease alleles are known along the 1239 residue protein, causing progressive external ophthalmoplegia, sensory and ataxic neuropathy, Alpers syndrome, and male infertility (see PEOA1, SANDO, AHS, MNGIE at OMIM). POLG also contains a polyglutamine tract near its N-terminus of length 13 in human that may be subject to polymorphic replication slippage.

POLG is accompanied by an accessory dimer of POLG2. Now receiving considerable attention, two mitochondrial disease alleles have been found, G416A and G451E (causing adPEO). A helicase (PEO1 or twinkle) causing an adult-onset progressive external ophthalmoplegia PEO and topoisomerase TOP1MT are other nuclear encoded proteins critical to mitochondrial dna replication. The latter binds a specific site in the D loop control region. These too have been implicated in rare mitochondrial diseases.

These enzymes, especially POLG, needs extensive sequencing in bison and yak (indeed every once-bottlenecked endangered species). That might done economically on a population scale with whole-exome chips rather than sequencing whole genomes. The POLG gene itself is difficult to study in isolation, being comprised of 23 exons spread out over 18490 bp.

No sequencing of yak or bison POLG has been done yet but that of cow, sheep and pig etc are readily retrieved from their respective genome projects. The Bos taurus POLG protein is 90% identical to human; it has not been specifically studied.

Kilo-sequence alignment tricks

New sequencing technologies have greatly affected the amount of mammalian mitochondrial genomic data available at GenBank. Five years ago, it was acceptable to publish population-level D loop sequences accompanied by a few fragmentary coding reads; today, a publication might offer 60-70 entire mitochondrial genomes. This favors evolutionary study of mitochondrial proteins over comparative genomics of nuclear genome products because the latter is still restricted to around 50 species (Dec 2010) almost all incompletely sequenced.

Many long-standing issues such as introgression, historic bottlenecks, population mixing, accrual of deleterious coding variants, hard polytomies, and lineage sorting during speciation can now be approached and resolved, especially with the increasing sequencing of end-Pleistocene frozen dna. This may allow more enlightened management of endangered species such as bison where populations reached rock bottom -- recovering numbers is not enough if genomic integrity is still at risk.

However, the flood of data raises significant issues in extraction of significant information: it is not instructive to align the tens of thousands of sequences available for each of 13 mitochondrial proteins -- that give a an intractable array of 3789 amino acids by 12500 sequences, enough to fill 20 x 100 = 2000 screens on the largest possible computer monitor. That data must be distilled down somehow to take-away information.

This section explains a practical desktop protocol for extracting the 'reduced phylogenetic alphabet' at each residue of the mitochondrial proteome. The method depends heavily on current capabilities of Blastp at NCBI and so may not be completely stable to changes made there over time.

First note that tBlastn cannot be used against the nr or wgs nucleotide databases at NCBI (or with Blat at UCSC) since the significantly different genetic code of mammalian mitochondria is no longer supported as a parameter option. Other oddities involve missing terminal nucleotides that are added before translation. However mitochondrial dna is usually translated sensibly at GenBank protein entries.

The vertebrate mitochondrial code:

TTT F Phe      TCT S Ser      TAT Y Tyr      TGT C Cys  
TTC F Phe      TCC S Ser      TAC Y Tyr      TGC C Cys  
TTA L Leu      TCA S Ser      TAA * Ter      TGA W Trp  
TTG L Leu      TCG S Ser      TAG * Ter      TGG W Trp  

CTT L Leu      CCT P Pro      CAT H His      CGT R Arg  
CTC L Leu      CCC P Pro      CAC H His      CGC R Arg  
CTA L Leu      CCA P Pro      CAA Q Gln      CGA R Arg  
CTG L Leu      CCG P Pro      CAG Q Gln      CGG R Arg  

ATT I Ile      ACT T Thr      AAT N Asn      AGT S Ser  
ATC I Ile i    ACC T Thr      AAC N Asn      AGC S Ser  
ATA M Met i    ACA T Thr      AAA K Lys      AGA * Ter  Bos can use ATA as initiation codon
ATG M Met i    ACG T Thr      AAG K Lys      AGG * Ter  

GTT V Val      GCT A Ala      GAT D Asp      GGT G Gly  
GTC V Val      GCC A Ala      GAC D Asp      GGC G Gly  
GTA V Val      GCA A Ala      GAA E Glu      GGA G Gly  
GTG V Val i    GCG A Ala      GAG E Glu      GGG G Gly  

    AAs  = FFLLSSSSYY**CCWWLLLLPPPPHHQQRRRRIIMMTTTTNNKKSS**VVVVAAAADDEEGGGG
  Start  = --------------------------------MMMM---------------M------------
  Base1  = TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
  Base2  = TTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGG
  Base3  = TCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAG

Blastp output at NCBI now has a very useful feature: clustering of identical individual sequences into single alignments, display of multiplicities, with all the accessions visible with an extra click. The only exception involves double-counting of SwissProt entries which, since SwissProt conducts no sequencing, always arise from another entry.

After collecting high resolution amino acid frequencies at a given site, it is necessary to determine the phylogenetic distribution of each variant (in practice just those of moderate occurrence). That is now very convenient to do provided the associated accessions have been saved:

Simply paste the blastp match list of protein accessions having the chosen amino acid variant into the Entrez text query box. Never mind if it only returns 20 out of your 157 input sequences -- it hasn't forgotten. It doesn't matter if the list has redundant entries (typically SwissProt and the protein giving rise to the SwissProt entry). After retrieval, set the "Find Related Data" to "Taxonomy" and wait for the options to load, then click "Find Items".

Miraculously, this returns a page that can be set to display a text phylogenetic tree your input sequences, the full set entered with all redundancy removed. That text tree has labelled higher taxonomic nodes and individual species deeper down. Final edits can be made quickly that capture the phylogenetic spread of the variant allele for interpretive purposes.

The two most common outcomes:

  • all the species carrying the variant comprise a monophyletic clade. If the origin of the clade is fairly ancient, then the variation is a derived informative adaptive change relative to ancestral (synapomorphy). If the site is invariant in all members of the co-clade (meaning the ancestral state has persisted to all other extant species), then the site is a phyloSNP (definition and examples: 1 2 3 4).
  • species carrying the variation are scattered incoherently across the mammalian phylogenetic tree. This means that the variation has arisen multiple times (all fairly recently) but has not persisted when it arose earlier, ie it is not a preferred allele for this protein at this site and gets replaced.